of ancient people, primarily in the Andean highlands of Peru focusing on the Inca Empire. I have also worked in central California and the Northeastern U.S.

My research explores the links between biology and culture, which can be seen in cases of trepanation, trophy-taking, cranial modification, and more.

For example, one study demonstrated that trepanation was an important medical treatment in the Cuzco region, often carried out to treat cranial trauma. Inca practitioners completed these surgeries with precision and a clear knowledge of cranial anatomy, resulting in a survival rate that reached 90% at one point.

Another study revealed that prehistoric groups in central California commonly practiced trophy-taking, including scalping and forearm trophy-taking, as part of a larger suite of warfare strategies.

Other study results have demystified issues of diet, disease, medicine, trauma and warfare, ethnicity, social status, migration, and the effects of societal growth.

Photo: A trophy-taking victim from prehistoric central California. This individual had both forearms removed as trophies and was likely killed by the spear point found within his ribcage.