Basic Ethical Terms and Normative Theories

Morality - Standards of right and wrong.

Ethics - The study of the reasons justifying various standards of right and wrong. Ethics tests claims about right and wrong with argumentation; this is not necessarily the case for morality, which can be based merely on custom, tradition, or prevailing opinion.

Normative Ethics - General theories of the nature of right and wrong: What is it about any right action that makes it right?

Applied Ethics - The application of normative theories to particular moral issues such as abortion, capital punishment, sexual morality, and animal rights, in order to clarify the ethical status of these issues.

Normative Theories

1. Ethical Relativism - There are no universal standards of right and wrong.

1A. Cultural Relativism - The lack of universal standards is due to the fact that different cultures have varying standards of right and wrong. According to cultural relativists, the standards of right and wrong arise from the predominant views of a particular culture. E.g., it is acceptable to cane graffiti artists in Singapore, and unacceptable to kill cows in parts of India. “When in Rome, do as the Romans.”

1B. Individual Relativism - The lack of universal standards is due to the fact that individuals have varying standards of right and wrong. Also known as subjectivism. According to this view, the standards of right and wrong arise from individual opinions. “To each their own.” “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.”

2. Ethical Egoism - The rightness or goodness of an act is determined solely by how much it benefits the agent doing it. Some defenders of ethical egoism argue that we are motivated merely by our own self-interest, whether we realize this or not (psychological egoism). E.g., a martyr is really motivated to sacrifice her life in order to feel good about herself or become famous. Other defenders of ethical egoism argue that ethical egoism is the only rational course of action because self-sacrifice and dependence on others are harmful and degrading. These advocates argue that ethical egoism benefits everyone involved.

3. Divine Command Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it is in accord with God’s will.

4. Natural Law Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it is in accord with our natural inclinations as creatures. Natural law theorists (like Aquinas) usually hold that it is right to follow our natural inclinations because they were created by God with our well-being in mind. This theory is used to argue against homosexuality, non-procreative sex, sex outside of marriage, as well as gluttony, avarice, etc.

5. Care Ethics - Over and above our general obligation to other people, each of us has an additional obligation to exercise special care for those with whom we have a close relationship, e.g., family members, friends, neighbors, co-workers. The rightness of an act is determined not only by how much it contributes to the good of others, but especially by how much it contributes to the good of those people with whom we have close relationships. Care ethics was invented by some feminist philosophers, and the model it follows is the care that a mother shows for her child.