Basic Ethical Terms and Normative Theories
Morality - Standards of right and wrong.
Ethics
- The study of the reasons justifying various standards of right and wrong.
Ethics tests claims about right and wrong with argumentation, which is not necessarily
the case for morality.
Normative
Ethics - General theories of the nature of right and wrong: What is it
about any right action that makes it right?
Applied
Ethics - The application of normative theories to particular moral issues
such as abortion, capital punishment, sexual morality, and animal rights, in
order to clarify the ethical status of these issues.
Metaethics - The critical examination of the
assumptions in normative theories. For example, Is right and wrong determined
by the pleasure and pain generated by an action, or by the rationality of that
action? Is right and wrong determined by the individual, the customs or
prevalent opinions in a society, or by universal moral principles?
Normative Theories
1. Ethical Relativism - There are no universal
standards of right and wrong.
1A. Cultural Relativism - The lack of universal standards
is due to the fact that different cultures have varying standards of right and
wrong. According to cultural relativists, the standards of right and wrong
arise from the predominant views of a particular culture. E.g., it is
acceptable to cane graffiti artists in
1B. Individual Relativism - The lack of universal standards
is due to the fact that individuals have varying standards of right and wrong.
According to this view, the standards of right and wrong arise from individual
opinions. “To each their own.” “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.”
Theories
of the Good - In these theories, the rightness of an action is defined
in terms of moral goodness. ‘Good’ can be defined in a variety of ways,
including pleasurable, beneficial, and appropriate. What distinguished these
three theories the most, however, is who’s good is considered to be most
important.
2.
Utilitarianism - The rightness of an act is determined by how much pleasure
and how little pain it generates for everyone affected by it.
3. Care Ethics
- Over and above one’s general obligation to other people, one has an
additional obligation to exercise special care for those with whom one has a
close relationship. The rightness of an act is determined not only by how much
it contributes to the good of others, but especially by how much it contributes
to the good of those people we have close relationships with. Care ethics is
argued for by some feminists, and the model it follows is the care that a
mother shows for her child.
4.
Ethical Egoism - The rightness of an act is determined solely by how much
it benefits the agent doing it. Some defenders of ethical egoism argue that we
are always motivated by our own self-interest, whether we realize this or not
(psychological egoism). E.g., a martyr is motivated to sacrifice her life in
order to feel better about herself. Other defenders of ethical egoism argue
that ethical egoism is the only rational course of action because
self-sacrifice and dependence on others are harmful and degrading. These
advocates argue that ethical egoism benefits everyone involved.
These three theories can be compared to three Chinese
theories of moral obligation.
Moism - We have a responsibility to be equally
concerned with the basic needs of everyone. Social harms result from a lack of
mutual concern.
Confucianism
- In addition to one’s obligation to other people, one has a special obligation
to one’s family. A strong society is rooted in strong families.
Legalism
- Everything should be done to increase the power of the ruler. One way to
achieve this is to formulate strict laws that closely regulate the lives of the
citizens. “Might makes right.”
Theories associated with Religious Morality
5.
Divine Command Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it is in
accord with God’s will.
6.
Natural Law Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it
is in accord with our natural inclinations as creatures. Natural law theorists
(like Aquinas) usually hold that it is right to follow our natural inclinations
because they were created by God with our well-being in mind. This theory is
used to argue against homosexuality, non-procreative sex, sex outside of
marriage, etc.
A Theory emphasizing Rationality
7. Kant’s
Ethics - An act is right if it is rational. Kant goes on to argue that
rational beings have respect for their own rationality and that of others, and
consequently will not do things that undermine the rationality of themselves or
others. According to Kant, a rational being only acts in ways that can be universalized,
ways in which everyone could act. Consequently, a rational being would not
expect others to do something that he or she refuses to do (i.e., set double
standards), such as telling the truth.
A Theory emphasizing Character Traits
8. Virtue
Ethics - Morally proper actions result from having the proper character
traits or habits (virtues), such as courage, moderation, wisdom, justice, and
truthfulness. A person will consistently act in the right manner only if they
have these virtues. A virtuous person will be able to judge what is the right
thing to do, which is often a very complicated and difficult matter. This
theory is was held by the ancient Greeks, especially Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, and the Stoics, and has enjoyed a resurgence of interest in recent
years.